FED 242: INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL EDUCATION

1. INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL EDUCATION
Special education refers to specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of children with
disabilities or exceptionalities. It involves modified teaching methods, equipment, materials, and learning
environments to help exceptional children achieve their full potential.
Key Principles:
 Individualized instruction based on student needs
 Appropriate assessment and identification
 Least restrictive environment
 Collaboration between educators, parents, and specialists
 Focus on abilities rather than disabilities
2. CONCEPT OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Definition: Exceptional children are those who differ from the average or normal children in mental, physical,
social, or emotional characteristics to such an extent that they require special educational services to develop
their maximum capacity.
Characteristics:
 They deviate significantly from what is considered typical or normal
 They require modifications in school practices or special educational services
 They may be above or below average in one or more areas
 Their exceptionality affects their educational performance
Categories Include:
 Children with intellectual differences (both challenges and giftedness)
 Children with sensory impairments (visual, hearing)
 Children with physical and health impairments
 Children with communication disorders
 Children with behavioral and emotional disorders
 Children with learning disabilities
3. CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Exceptional children are broadly categorized into:
A. Children with Disabilities
 Intellectual disabilities
 Learning disabilities
 Communication disorders
 Sensory impairments (visual and hearing)
 Physical and health impairments
 Behavioral and emotional disorders
B. Gifted and Talented Children
 Above-average intellectual ability
 Creative and productive thinking
 Leadership abilities
 Talents in specific areas (arts, music, sports)
4. BASIC CONCEPT OF SPECIAL CHILDREN
Special children are those who require additional support, specialized instruction, or accommodations to
participate meaningfully in educational activities.
Core Understanding:
 Every child is unique and has individual learning needs
 Special children have the right to education
 They benefit from early identification and intervention
 They can achieve success with appropriate support
 Inclusion and integration should be promoted when possible
Educational Implications:
 Individualized Education Programs (IEP)
 Adapted curriculum and materials
 Specialized teaching strategies
 Assistive technology
 Supportive learning environment
5. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SPECIAL EDUCATION
Historical Development:
Early Period (Before 1800s):
 Children with disabilities were often neglected, hidden, or institutionalized
 Little to no educational provision
 Dominated by superstition and misunderstanding
19th Century:
 Emergence of institutions for the deaf and blind
 First schools for children with intellectual disabilities
 Pioneers like Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard worked with “wild boy of Aveyron”
 Maria Montessori developed methods for children with special needs
20th Century:
 Compulsory education laws included children with disabilities
 Development of intelligence testing
 Special schools and classes established
 Parent advocacy movements emerged
Modern Era (1970s-Present):
 Legislation mandating free appropriate public education
 Shift toward inclusion and mainstreaming
 Rights-based approach to special education
 Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
Philosophical Foundations:
Normalization Principle:
 Making available patterns and conditions of everyday life as close as possible to norms and patterns of
mainstream society
Inclusion Philosophy:
 All children have the right to learn together
 Schools should accommodate all children regardless of differences
 Diversity enriches the learning environment
Social Model of Disability:
 Disability is created by barriers in society, not by the person’s impairment
 Focus on removing barriers rather than “fixing” the individual
Human Rights Perspective:
 Education is a fundamental human right
 Every child deserves quality education
 Equal opportunities for all learners
6. INTELLECTUAL DIFFERENCE
i) Definition of Intellectual Difference
Intellectual difference (also called intellectual disability or cognitive impairment) refers to significant
limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior affecting conceptual, social, and practical skills. It
originates before age 18.
Key Characteristics:
 Below-average intellectual functioning (IQ typically below 70-75)
 Deficits in adaptive behavior
 Difficulties in learning, reasoning, and problem-solving
 Challenges in daily living skills
ii) Intellectual Challenges
Learning Challenges:
 Slower rate of learning
 Difficulty with abstract concepts
 Problems with memory and attention
 Limited generalization of skills
Social Challenges:
 Difficulty understanding social cues
 Challenges in forming peer relationships
 Vulnerability to exploitation
 Limited judgment in social situations
Adaptive Behavior Challenges:
 Self-care difficulties
 Communication problems
 Limited independent living skills
 Need for ongoing support
iii) Causes of Intellectual Difference
Prenatal Causes:
 Chromosomal abnormalities (Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome)
 Genetic disorders
 Maternal infections during pregnancy (rubella, toxoplasmosis)
 Maternal substance abuse (alcohol, drugs)
 Malnutrition
 Exposure to toxins (lead, mercury)
Perinatal Causes:
 Birth complications
 Premature birth
 Low birth weight
 Oxygen deprivation during delivery
 Birth trauma
Postnatal Causes:
 Head injuries
 Infections (meningitis, encephalitis)
 Severe malnutrition
 Environmental deprivation
 Exposure to toxic substances
 Severe neglect or abuse
iv) Types of Intellectual Difference
By Severity Level:
1. Mild Intellectual Disability (IQ 50-70):
o Can develop social and communication skills
o Capable of academic learning up to 6th-grade level
o Can achieve independence with minimal support
o Can learn vocational skills
2. Moderate Intellectual Disability (IQ 35-49):
o Can learn basic communication skills
o Benefit from vocational training
o Can perform simple tasks under supervision
o Require moderate support in daily living
3. Severe Intellectual Disability (IQ 20-34):
o Limited speech development
o Can learn basic self-care skills
o Require substantial support
o May learn simple communication and self-help skills
4. Profound Intellectual Disability (IQ below 20):
o Severely limited cognitive functioning
o Require constant care and supervision
o Minimal communication abilities
o May have accompanying physical disabilities
By Etiology (Cause):
 Genetic/chromosomal disorders
 Acquired conditions
 Unknown causes
v) How to Educate Children with Intellectual Disabilities
Educational Approaches:
1. Individualized Education Program (IEP):
o Assess current functioning levels
o Set realistic, measurable goals
o Design specific interventions
o Regular monitoring and evaluation
2. Curriculum Modifications:
o Functional, life-skills oriented curriculum
o Concrete, hands-on learning experiences
o Repetition and practice
o Breaking tasks into smaller steps
o Use of visual aids and manipulatives
3. Teaching Strategies:
o Task analysis (breaking complex tasks into steps)
o Prompting and fading techniques
o Positive reinforcement
o Modeling and demonstration
o Peer tutoring
o Consistent routines
4. Skill Development Areas:
o Academic skills (reading, writing, basic math)
o Communication skills
o Social skills
o Self-care and daily living skills
o Vocational skills
o Community living skills
5. Supportive Environment:
o Structured, predictable classroom
o Clear expectations and rules
o Supportive, patient teachers
o Inclusive settings when appropriate
o Assistive technology
o Collaboration with families
6. Transition Planning:
o Preparation for post-school life
o Vocational training
o Independent living skills
o Community integration
7. CONCEPT OF GIFTEDNESS AND TALENT
i) Definition
Giftedness refers to exceptional ability or potential in one or more areas, including intellectual, creative,
artistic, leadership, or specific academic fields. Gifted individuals demonstrate performance or potential
significantly above their peers.
Talent refers to exceptional ability in specific domains such as music, arts, sports, or other specialized areas.
Key Characteristics:
 Advanced cognitive abilities
 Rapid learning pace
 Exceptional memory
 Creative and innovative thinking
 Intense curiosity
 High level of task commitment
 Advanced language development
 Ability to make connections and see patterns
ii) Causes of Giftedness
Genetic Factors:
 Hereditary influence on intelligence
 Genetic predisposition for certain abilities
 Family patterns of giftedness
Environmental Factors:
 Enriched early childhood experiences
 Stimulating home environment
 Access to educational resources
 Parental support and encouragement
 Quality education
 Cultural values emphasizing achievement
Interaction of Factors:
 Nature and nurture working together
 Genetic potential realized through environment
 Motivation and opportunity
iii) Types of Giftedness
Multiple Intelligences Perspective (Howard Gardner):
1. Linguistic Intelligence:
o Exceptional verbal abilities
o Advanced reading and writing skills
o Love for words and language
2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence:
o Advanced reasoning abilities
o Problem-solving skills
o Mathematical talent
3. Spatial Intelligence:
o Visual-spatial reasoning
o Artistic abilities
o Strong visualization skills
4. Musical Intelligence:
o Exceptional musical abilities
o Sensitivity to rhythm and pitch
o Musical composition and performance
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence:
o Athletic prowess
o Dance abilities
o Skilled physical coordination
6. Interpersonal Intelligence:
o Leadership qualities
o Strong social skills
o Empathy and understanding of others
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence:
o Self-awareness
o Reflective thinking
o Understanding of own emotions
8. Naturalist Intelligence:
o Understanding of nature
o Classification skills
o Environmental awareness
Other Classifications:
 Academically Gifted: Excel in school subjects
 Creatively Gifted: Exceptional creative thinking
 Artistically Talented: Excellence in arts
 Intellectually Gifted: High IQ (typically 130+)
 Specific Talent Areas: Music, sports, leadership
iv) Education for Gifted and Talented Children
Educational Approaches:
1. Acceleration:
o Grade skipping
o Early admission to school
o Subject-specific acceleration
o Early college entrance
o Compacted curriculum
2. Enrichment:
o In-depth exploration of topics
o Independent projects
o Research opportunities
o Complex problem-solving activities
o Creative expression opportunities
3. Differentiation:
o Modified curriculum depth and complexity
o Higher-order thinking activities
o Advanced reading materials
o Open-ended assignments
o Choice in learning activities
4. Grouping Strategies:
o Cluster grouping with similar-ability peers
o Pull-out programs
o Special classes or schools for gifted
o Subject-specific grouping
o Flexible grouping
5. Specialized Programs:
o Gifted and talented programs
o Magnet schools
o Honor classes
o Advanced Placement (AP) courses
o International Baccalaureate (IB) programs
o Summer enrichment programs
o Competitions and olympiads
6. Teaching Strategies:
o Problem-based learning
o Inquiry-based instruction
o Socratic questioning
o Independent study
o Mentorship programs
o Technology integration
o Interdisciplinary approaches
7. Social-Emotional Support:
o Addressing perfectionism
o Supporting emotional intensity
o Peer relationships
o Counseling services
o Understanding asynchronous development
Considerations:
 Avoid making assumptions about capabilities
 Address underachievement
 Support twice-exceptional students (gifted with disabilities)
 Promote well-rounded development
 Encourage creativity and risk-taking
 Balance challenge with achievability
8. CONCEPT OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
i) Definition
Learning disabilities are neurologically-based processing problems that interfere with learning basic skills such
as reading, writing, or math, or higher-level skills such as organization, time management, and abstract
reasoning. They are not related to intelligence, motivation, or sensory impairments.
Key Features:
 Unexpected academic difficulty given intelligence level
 Processing deficits in specific areas
 Life-long condition requiring support
 Not due to lack of instruction or opportunity
 Significantly impacts academic achievement
ii) Types of Learning Disabilities
1. Dyslexia (Reading Disability):
 Difficulty with reading accuracy and fluency
 Problems with decoding words
 Spelling difficulties
 Challenges with phonological processing
 Slow reading pace
 Reading comprehension problems
2. Dysgraphia (Writing Disability):
 Poor handwriting
 Difficulty organizing thoughts on paper
 Spelling problems
 Trouble with written expression
 Inconsistent spacing and sizing of letters
 Difficulty copying from board
3. Dyscalculia (Mathematics Disability):
 Difficulty understanding number concepts
 Problems with calculations
 Trouble memorizing math facts
 Difficulty with mathematical reasoning
 Problems understanding word problems
 Difficulty with time and money concepts
4. Auditory Processing Disorder:
 Difficulty processing spoken information
 Trouble following oral directions
 Problems distinguishing similar sounds
 Difficulty with phonics
5. Visual Processing Disorder:
 Difficulty interpreting visual information
 Problems with spatial relationships
 Trouble distinguishing shapes and symbols
 Difficulty with visual memory
6. Language Processing Disorder:
 Difficulty understanding and using language
 Problems with verbal expression
 Receptive language challenges
 Difficulty with grammar and syntax
7. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities:
 Difficulty with visual-spatial tasks
 Problems with social skills
 Trouble understanding nonverbal cues
 Motor coordination difficulties
iii) Causes of Learning Disabilities
Neurological Factors:
 Brain structure differences
 Neurological wiring variations
 Brain injury or trauma
 Central nervous system dysfunction
Genetic Factors:
 Family history of learning disabilities
 Hereditary influences
 Genetic mutations
Prenatal and Perinatal Factors:
 Maternal substance abuse
 Premature birth
 Low birth weight
 Complications during pregnancy or delivery
 Maternal illness or infection
Environmental Factors:
 Exposure to toxins (lead)
 Malnutrition
 Severe early deprivation
 Lack of early learning experiences
Note: Often the cause is unknown or multifactorial.
iv) Education for Students with Learning Disabilities
Assessment and Identification:
 Comprehensive psychoeducational evaluation
 Response to Intervention (RTI) approach
 Identification of specific learning profile
 Understanding strengths and weaknesses
Educational Strategies:
1. Specialized Instruction:
o Explicit, systematic teaching
o Multi-sensory approaches (visual, auditory, kinesthetic)
o Structured literacy programs for dyslexia
o Assistive technology
o Accommodations and modifications
2. For Reading Disabilities:
o Phonics-based instruction
o Repeated reading for fluency
o Comprehension strategies
o Audiobooks and text-to-speech
o Extended time for reading
3. For Writing Disabilities:
o Graphic organizers
o Word processors and spell-check
o Speech-to-text technology
o Breaking writing into steps
o Reduced writing requirements
4. For Math Disabilities:
o Concrete manipulatives
o Visual representations
o Calculator use
o Extra time for computation
o Step-by-step instruction
o Real-world applications
5. Instructional Accommodations:
o Extended time on tests
o Quiet testing environment
o Oral testing options
o Note-taking assistance
o Preferential seating
o Reduced workload
o Alternative assessment methods
6. Learning Strategies:
o Study skills instruction
o Organization strategies
o Time management techniques
o Memory strategies
o Self-monitoring techniques
o Metacognitive strategies
7. Support Services:
o Special education services
o Resource room support
o Tutoring
o Counseling
o Parent education and involvement
o Transition planning
Important Principles:
 Focus on strengths while addressing weaknesses
 Build self-esteem and confidence
 Teach compensatory strategies
 Provide appropriate challenges
 Celebrate progress and effort
 Promote self-advocacy skills
9. COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
i) Speech and Language Disorders
Definition: Communication disorders involve difficulties in speech, language, or both that interfere with
effective communication.
Speech Disorders involve problems with producing sounds correctly, fluency, or voice quality.
Language Disorders involve difficulties understanding or using words in context, both in spoken and written
forms.
ii) Differences Between Speech and Language Disorders
Speech Disorders:
 Focus on sound production
 How words are formed and sound
 Physical aspects of speaking
 Examples: stuttering, articulation problems, voice disorders
Language Disorders:
 Focus on meaning and use
 Understanding and using words
 Cognitive aspects of communication
 Examples: difficulty with vocabulary, grammar, or comprehension
iii) Types of Communication Disorders
A. Speech Disorders:
1. Articulation Disorders:
 Difficulty producing specific sounds
 Substitutions (saying “wabbit” for “rabbit”)
 Omissions (saying “ca” for “cat”)
 Distortions (slurred sounds)
 Additions (extra sounds)
2. Fluency Disorders (Stuttering):
 Repetitions of sounds or words
 Prolongations of sounds
 Blocks (inability to produce sounds)
 Secondary behaviors (eye blinking, head movements)
 Disrupted flow of speech
3. Voice Disorders:
 Abnormal pitch (too high or too low)
 Abnormal volume
 Hoarseness or breathiness
 Nasal quality
 Vocal strain
4. Apraxia of Speech:
 Difficulty planning and coordinating movements for speech
 Inconsistent errors
 Difficulty with voluntary speech
 Neurological basis
B. Language Disorders:
1. Receptive Language Disorder:
 Difficulty understanding language
 Problems following directions
 Trouble understanding questions
 Difficulty with vocabulary comprehension
 Problems understanding complex sentences
2. Expressive Language Disorder:
 Difficulty using language to communicate
 Limited vocabulary
 Grammatical errors
 Difficulty forming sentences
 Word-finding problems
 Trouble organizing thoughts
3. Mixed Receptive-Expressive Language Disorder:
 Problems with both understanding and using language
 Combined difficulties
4. Pragmatic Language Disorder:
 Difficulty using language in social contexts
 Problems with conversation skills
 Trouble understanding nonliteral language
 Difficulty with turn-taking in conversation
iv) Causes of Communication Disorders
Developmental Causes:
 Developmental delays
 Unknown factors
 Familial patterns
Physical Causes:
 Hearing loss
 Cleft palate or lip
 Cerebral palsy
 Brain injury
 Neurological conditions
Genetic Causes:
 Genetic syndromes
 Hereditary factors
Environmental Causes:
 Lack of language stimulation
 Neglect or abuse
 Chronic ear infections
 Exposure to multiple languages (confusion, not disorder)
Functional Causes:
 No identifiable physical cause
 May relate to learning or behavior
v) Rehabilitation and Education
Assessment:
 Speech-language evaluation
 Hearing screening
 Oral-motor examination
 Language sampling
 Standardized testing
Intervention Approaches:
1. Speech Therapy:
 Articulation therapy (correct sound production)
 Fluency therapy (manage stuttering)
 Voice therapy (improve vocal quality)
 Oral-motor exercises
2. Language Therapy:
 Vocabulary development
 Grammar instruction
 Comprehension strategies
 Expressive language activities
 Pragmatic language training
3. Specific Techniques:
 Modeling correct speech/language
 Repetition and practice
 Visual supports
 Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)
 Technology aids
 Games and play-based therapy
4. Classroom Strategies:
 Face the student when speaking
 Use visual supports
 Simplify language when needed
 Allow extra time for responses
 Reduce background noise
 Encourage participation without pressure
 Teach peers to be patient and supportive
5. Collaboration:
 Speech-language pathologist services
 Teacher-therapist collaboration
 Parent involvement and home practice
 Peer support programs
6. Technology Support:
 Communication devices
 Speech-generating devices
 Apps for speech and language practice
 Recording devices for practice
Prevention and Early Intervention:
 Early identification critical
 Language-rich environments
 Reading to children
 Encouraging communication attempts
 Addressing hearing problems promptly
10. SENSORY DIFFERENCES: VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
i) Concept of Visual Impairment
Definition: Visual impairment refers to a significant loss of vision that cannot be corrected with standard
eyeglasses or contact lenses and interferes with learning and daily functioning.
Categories:
1. Low Vision (Partial Sight):
 Significant visual impairment but with some usable vision
 Can benefit from optical aids and adaptations
 May use large print or magnification
2. Legally Blind:
 Visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with correction
 Or visual field restricted to 20 degrees or less
 May have some functional vision
3. Totally Blind:
 No functional vision
 Relies on other senses for learning
 Uses Braille and auditory materials
ii) Categories of Visual Impairment
By Severity:
 Mild visual impairment
 Moderate visual impairment
 Severe visual impairment
 Profound visual impairment (blindness)
By Age of Onset:
 Congenital (present at birth)
 Adventitious (acquired later)
By Type of Loss:
 Central vision loss (difficulty seeing detail)
 Peripheral vision loss (tunnel vision)
 Total vision loss
iii) Causes of Visual Impairment
Refractive Errors (Usually Correctable):
 Myopia (nearsightedness)
 Hyperopia (farsightedness)
 Astigmatism
Eye Conditions:
1. Congenital Conditions:
 Congenital cataracts
 Congenital glaucoma
 Optic nerve hypoplasia
 Anophthalmia (absence of eye)
 Albinism
2. Acquired Conditions:
 Cataracts (lens clouding)
 Glaucoma (optic nerve damage)
 Diabetic retinopathy
 Macular degeneration
 Retinal detachment
 Retinopathy of prematurity
3. Infectious Causes:
 Trachoma
 Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
 Vitamin A deficiency (in developing countries)
4. Traumatic Causes:
 Eye injuries
 Chemical burns
 Head trauma
5. Genetic Causes:
 Retinitis pigmentosa
 Leber’s congenital amaurosis
 Various inherited conditions
6. Systemic Diseases:
 Diabetes
 Hypertension
 Brain tumors or lesions
iv) Corrective Measures
Medical/Surgical Interventions:
 Prescription eyeglasses or contact lenses
 Cataract surgery
 Glaucoma treatment
 Laser surgery
 Corneal transplants
Optical Aids:
 Magnifiers (handheld or stand)
 Telescopes
 Electronic magnification systems
 Specialized glasses (filters, prismatic)
Non-Optical Aids:
 Large print materials
 High contrast materials
 Enhanced lighting
 Reading stands
 Bold-lined paper
Electronic/Technological Aids:
 Screen readers
 Screen magnification software
 Braille displays
 Optical character recognition (OCR)
 Talking devices and apps
 Video magnifiers (CCTV)
v) Education for Students with Visual Impairment
Specialized Instruction:
1. Braille Literacy:
 Learning to read and write Braille
 Braille note-taking
 Unified English Braille code
 Braille production technology
2. Orientation and Mobility (O&M):
 Safe travel skills
 Use of long cane (white cane)
 Understanding environments
 Route planning
 Public transportation use
 Independent movement
3. Assistive Technology:
 Screen reading software (JAWS, NVDA)
 Magnification software
 Braille notetakers
 Audio books and recordings
 Accessible computer use
 Apps for accessibility
4. Compensatory Skills:
 Listening skills development
 Tactile learning strategies
 Auditory learning maximization
 Organizational skills
 Time management with adaptive tools
 Study skills
5. Daily Living Skills:
 Personal care and grooming
 Food preparation
 Money management
 Home management
 Labeling and organization systems
Classroom Adaptations:
1. Physical Environment:
 Appropriate lighting
 Glare reduction
 Organized, consistent layout
 Clear pathways
 Preferential seating
2. Instructional Materials:
 Large print books
 Braille materials
 Tactile graphics and models
 Audio materials
 Digital accessible formats
3. Teaching Strategies:
 Verbal descriptions of visual information
 Hands-on, tactile learning
 Extra time for tasks
 Advanced organizers
 Clear verbal communication
 Avoiding reliance on visual-only instructions
4. Curriculum Modifications:
 Expanded core curriculum (includes O&M, Braille, etc.)
 Career education
 Social skills instruction
 Recreation and leisure education
Support Services:
 Teacher of the visually impaired (TVI)
 Orientation and mobility specialist
 Braille transcriber
 Assistive technology specialist
 Regular collaboration with general education teachers
Social-Emotional Considerations:
 Building confidence and independence
 Social skills development
 Self-advocacy training
 Peer awareness and education
 Addressing isolation
 Promoting inclusion
Transition Planning:
 Career exploration
 Post-secondary education preparation
 Independent living skills
 Community resources awareness
 Assistive technology proficiency
11. HEARING IMPAIRMENT
i) Definition
Hearing impairment (also called hearing loss or deafness) refers to a partial or complete loss of the ability to
hear sounds. It ranges from mild difficulty hearing to profound deafness.
Key Terms:
Deaf: Profound hearing loss where auditory processing is nonfunctional for everyday purposes. Individuals
typically use sign language and identify with Deaf culture.
Hard of Hearing: Partial hearing loss that makes hearing difficult but not impossible, typically with
amplification. Individuals may use spoken language as primary communication.
Hearing Impairment: General term covering all degrees of hearing loss from mild to profound.
ii) Types of Hearing Impairment
By Degree of Loss:
1. Mild (26-40 dB loss):
 Difficulty hearing soft speech
 May miss some consonants
 Benefit from amplification
2. Moderate (41-55 dB loss):
 Cannot hear conversational speech at normal levels
 Require hearing aids
 May have speech difficulties
3. Moderately Severe (56-70 dB loss):
 Can hear only loud speech
 Significant communication difficulties
 Need powerful hearing aids
4. Severe (71-90 dB loss):
 Cannot hear speech without amplification
 May hear loud sounds
 Require hearing aids or cochlear implants
5. Profound (91+ dB loss):
 Cannot hear speech
 May sense vibrations
 Typically use sign language
 May benefit from cochlear implants
By Type of Loss:
1. Conductive Hearing Loss:
 Problem in outer or middle ear
 Sound is not conducted properly to inner ear
 Often temporary and treatable
 Causes: ear infections, fluid, wax buildup, damaged eardrum, otosclerosis
2. Sensorineural Hearing Loss:
 Damage to inner ear (cochlea) or auditory nerve
 Usually permanent
 Affects sound clarity and loudness
 Causes: aging, noise exposure, genetics, illness, ototoxic drugs
3. Mixed Hearing Loss:
 Combination of conductive and sensorineural
 Problems in both outer/middle ear and inner ear
4. Auditory Processing Disorder:
 Hearing is normal, but brain has difficulty processing sounds
 Not true hearing impairment but affects listening
By Time of Onset:
1. Congenital (Prelingual):
 Present at birth or before speech development
 Greater impact on language development
 May not develop speech naturally
2. Acquired (Postlingual):
 Occurs after speech and language development
 Individual has memory of sound
 Often easier to maintain spoken language
By Ear Affected:
 Unilateral (one ear)
 Bilateral (both ears)
iii) Causes of Hearing Impairment
Genetic Causes:
 Hereditary hearing loss (50% of congenital cases)
 Genetic syndromes (Usher, Waardenburg, Pendred)
 Familial hearing loss patterns
Prenatal Causes:
 Maternal infections (rubella, CMV, toxoplasmosis, syphilis)
 Maternal drug or alcohol use
 Ototoxic medications during pregnancy
 Rh incompatibility
 Genetic factors
Perinatal Causes:
 Premature birth
 Low birth weight
 Birth complications
 Lack of oxygen during delivery
 Neonatal jaundice (kernicterus)
 Infection during birth
Postnatal Causes:
 Ear infections (otitis media)
 Meningitis or encephalitis
 Measles, mumps
 Head injury or trauma
 Noise exposure (chronic or sudden loud noise)
 Ototoxic medications (certain antibiotics, chemotherapy)
 Aging (presbycusis)
 Tumors
 Chronic diseases
Environmental Factors:
 Excessive noise exposure
 Explosions or trauma
 Poor medical care
 Malnutrition
iv) Identification of Hearing Impairment
Early Signs in Infants:
 No response to loud sounds
 Not turning toward sounds by 6 months
 No babbling or reduced babbling
 Not responding to name by 12 months
Signs in Children:
 Speech and language delays
 Asking for repetition frequently (“What?”)
 Speaking too loudly or too softly
 Turning volume up excessively
 Watching faces intently (lip reading)
 Difficulty following directions
 Poor academic performance
 Inattention or behavior problems
 Positioning one ear forward
 Social withdrawal
Assessment Methods:
1. Newborn Hearing Screening:
 Universal screening at birth
 Otoacoustic emissions (OAE) test
 Auditory brainstem response (ABR) test
2. Behavioral Tests:
 Pure tone audiometry
 Speech audiometry
 Play audiometry (for young children)
 Visual reinforcement audiometry
3. Objective Tests:
 Tympanometry (middle ear function)
 Acoustic reflex testing
 Auditory brainstem response (ABR)
 Otoacoustic emissions (OAE)
4. Functional Assessment:
 Speech and language evaluation
 Educational assessment
 Communication needs assessment
Importance of Early Identification:
 Critical period for language development (birth to 3 years)
 Early intervention improves outcomes
 Earlier amplification is more effective
 Prevents secondary delays
v) Education for Students with Hearing Impairment
Communication Approaches:
1. Oral/Aural Approach:
 Focus on spoken language
 Auditory training
 Speechreading (lip reading)
 Use of residual hearing with amplification
 Speech therapy
2. Manual Approach:
 Use of sign language
 American Sign Language (ASL) or other sign systems
 Finger spelling
 Visual communication emphasis
3. Total Communication:
 Combination of oral and manual methods
 Uses speech, signs, finger spelling, amplification
 Multiple modes of communication
 Flexible approach
4. Bilingual-Bicultural Approach:
 Sign language as first language
 Written/spoken language as second language
 Emphasis on Deaf culture
 Cultural identity development
Amplification and Technology:
1. Hearing Aids:
 Behind-the-ear (BTE)
 In-the-ear (ITE)
 In-the-canal (ITC)
 Digital hearing aids
 FM systems for classroom use
2. Cochlear Implants:
 Surgically implanted device
 Bypasses damaged cochlea
 Directly stimulates auditory nerve
 Requires extensive training and therapy
 Controversial in Deaf community
3. Assistive Listening Devices:
 FM systems
 Infrared systems
 Induction loop systems
 Personal amplifiers
4. Assistive Technology:
 Captioning services (real-time, closed captioning)
 Video relay services
 Text telephones (TTY)
 Visual alerting devices (doorbells, fire alarms)
 Vibrating alarms
 Apps for communication and accessibility
Educational Strategies:
1. Classroom Modifications:
 Preferential seating (front, center, good view of teacher and peers)
 Good lighting for visibility
 Reduced background noise
 Acoustic treatment of classroom
 Visual fire alarms
2. Instructional Strategies:
 Face student when speaking
 Use visual aids extensively
 Provide written materials
 Use captions on videos
 Pre-teach vocabulary
 Check for understanding frequently
 Rephrase rather than just repeat
 Speak clearly but naturally
3. Visual Supports:
 Written instructions
 Visual schedules
 Graphic organizers
 Charts and diagrams
 PowerPoint presentations
 Note-taking assistance
4. Language and Literacy:
 Explicit vocabulary instruction
 Visual phonics
 Reading comprehension strategies
 Written expression support
 Language experience approach
 Bilingual education (ASL and English)
5. Social Skills Support:
 Facilitating peer interactions
 Teaching conversational skills
 Group participation strategies
 Self-advocacy skills
 Deaf culture education (for all students)
Support Services:
 Teacher of the deaf/hard of hearing
 Sign language interpreter
 Speech-language pathologist
 Audiologist
 Educational audiologist
 Captioning services
 Note-takers
 Tutoring support
Educational Placement Options:
1. Mainstream/Inclusion:
 Regular classroom with support services
 Requires accommodations and modifications
 Promotes social integration
2. Resource Room:
 Part-time special instruction
 Maintains connection to regular education
3. Special Classes:
 Self-contained classes in regular schools
 Small groups with specialized instruction
4. Schools for the Deaf:
 Specialized environment
 Deaf culture emphasis
 Comprehensive services
 Peer community
Important Considerations:
 Early language exposure critical (spoken or signed)
 Consistency in communication approach
 Family involvement essential
 Cultural sensitivity (Deaf culture vs. medical model)
 Individual needs vary greatly
 Self-esteem and identity development
 Access to Deaf role models and community
Transition and Post-School:
 Career exploration
 Post-secondary education options
 Vocational training
 Independent living skills
 Community resources
 Advocacy skills
 Technology proficiency
12. BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
i) Definition
Behavioral disorders (also called emotional and behavioral disorders or EBD) refer to persistent patterns of
behavior that significantly differ from age-appropriate norms and negatively affect educational performance,
social relationships, and personal adjustment.
Key Characteristics:
 Behaviors that are chronic and persistent
 Behaviors that are severe in nature
 Behaviors that deviate significantly from cultural norms
 Impact on academic achievement
 Difficulty maintaining relationships
 Inability to learn that cannot be explained by other factors
Common Features:
 Aggression toward people or property
 Inability to build or maintain relationships
 Inappropriate behaviors or feelings under normal circumstances
 Pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression
 Physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems
ii) Categories of Behavioral Disorders
1. Externalizing Disorders: Characterized by outward-directed behaviors affecting others.
a) Conduct Disorder:
 Aggressive behavior toward people and animals
 Destruction of property
 Deceitfulness or theft
 Serious violation of rules
 Lack of empathy
 Defiance of authority
b) Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD):
 Angry/irritable mood
 Argumentative/defiant behavior
 Vindictiveness
 Pattern of negativity toward authority
 Frequent temper tantrums
 Deliberately annoying others
c) Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD):
 Inattention
 Hyperactivity
 Impulsivity
 Difficulty sustaining attention
 Excessive fidgeting or restlessness
2. Internalizing Disorders: Characterized by inward-directed behaviors.
a) Anxiety Disorders:
 Excessive worry or fear
 Phobias (specific fears)
 Separation anxiety
 Social anxiety
 Generalized anxiety
 Panic attacks
 School refusal
b) Depression:
 Persistent sad or irritable mood
 Loss of interest in activities
 Changes in appetite or sleep
 Fatigue or loss of energy
 Feelings of worthlessness
 Difficulty concentrating
 Thoughts of death or suicide
c) Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD):
 Intrusive, unwanted thoughts (obsessions)
 Repetitive behaviors (compulsions)
 Ritualistic behaviors
 Significant distress and time consumption
3. Other Disorders:
a) Eating Disorders:
 Anorexia nervosa
 Bulimia nervosa
 Binge eating disorder
 Body image distortions
b) Selective Mutism:
 Consistent failure to speak in specific situations
 Ability to speak in comfortable situations
c) Psychotic Disorders:
 Hallucinations
 Delusions
 Disorganized thinking
 Loss of contact with reality
iii) Causes of Behavioral Disorders
Biological Factors:
 Genetic predisposition
 Neurological differences
 Brain chemistry imbalances
 Prenatal exposure to toxins or drugs
 Birth complications
 Temperament
Psychological Factors:
 Traumatic experiences
 Cognitive distortions
 Low self-esteem
 Poor coping skills
 Learned behaviors
Family Factors:
 Family conflict or dysfunction
 Inconsistent discipline
 Abuse or neglect
 Parental mental health issues
 Divorce or family disruption
 Lack of parental involvement
School Factors:
 Academic failure
 Poor teacher-student relationships
 Lack of structure
 Bullying
 Inappropriate expectations
 Lack of positive reinforcement
Social Factors:
 Peer rejection
 Negative peer influences
 Poverty
 Community violence
 Cultural factors
 Media influences
Note: Usually multiple factors interact (biopsychosocial model).
iv) Perspectives on Behavioral Disorders
1. Medical/Biological Perspective:
 Views disorders as illnesses
 Focuses on physiological causes
 Emphasizes diagnosis and medication
 Treatment by medical professionals
2. Psychodynamic Perspective:
 Based on Freudian theory
 Focuses on unconscious conflicts
 Examines early childhood experiences
 Treatment through psychotherapy
3. Behavioral Perspective:
 Behavior is learned
 Focus on observable behaviors
 Environment shapes behavior
 Treatment through behavior modification
4. Cognitive Perspective:
 Thoughts influence emotions and behaviors
 Focuses on thinking patterns
 Cognitive distortions cause problems
 Treatment through cognitive therapy
5. Ecological/Systems Perspective:
 Considers multiple environmental systems
 Person-environment interaction
 Family, school, community influences
 Comprehensive intervention across settings
6. Humanistic Perspective:
 Focuses on self-actualization
 Emphasizes personal growth
 Person-centered approach
 Building on strengths
v) Educational Approaches
Assessment:
 Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA)
 Direct observation
 Rating scales and checklists
 Interviews with student, parents, teachers
 Review of academic performance
 Psychological evaluation
Classroom Management:
1. Preventive Strategies:
 Clear rules and expectations
 Consistent routines
 Structured environment
 Positive classroom climate
 Engaging instruction
 Appropriate curriculum
 Strong teacher-student relationships
2. Positive Behavior Support:
 Teaching appropriate behaviors
 Reinforcing positive behaviors
 Clear consequences for misbehavior
 Function-based interventions
 School-wide positive behavior support
3. Environmental Modifications:
 Reducing triggers
 Providing choices
 Flexible seating
 Calm-down areas
 Sensory supports
 Predictable schedule
Behavioral Interventions:
1. Behavior Modification Techniques:
 Positive reinforcement
 Token economy systems
 Contingency contracts
 Shaping
 Modeling
 Time-out (used appropriately)
 Response cost
2. Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions:
 Self-monitoring
 Self-evaluation
 Self-instruction
 Problem-solving training
 Anger management
 Social skills training
3. Crisis Prevention and Intervention:
 De-escalation techniques
 Safety planning
 Crisis intervention plans
 Nonviolent crisis intervention
 Trauma-informed approaches
Academic Support:
 Differentiated instruction
 Accommodations
 Modified assignments
 Extra time
 Reduced workload when appropriate
 Scaffolding
 Success experiences
Social-Emotional Learning:
 Emotional regulation skills
 Social skills instruction
 Conflict resolution
 Empathy development
 Relationship building
 Coping strategies
Therapeutic Interventions:
 Individual counseling
 Group therapy
 Family therapy
 Play therapy (younger children)
 Art or music therapy
 Medication (when appropriate, with medical supervision)
Collaboration:
 Team approach (teachers, counselors, parents, outside providers)
 Regular communication
 Consistent strategies across settings
 Parent training and support
 Coordination with mental health services
Educational Placement Options:
 General education with support
 Resource room services
 Special class placement
 Alternative schools
 Residential treatment (severe cases)
 Therapeutic day programs
Important Principles:
 Early intervention is critical
 Focus on teaching, not just punishment
 Build on strengths
 Understand function of behavior
 Maintain dignity and respect
 Cultural sensitivity
 Trauma-informed care
 Promote resilience
13. BEHAVIORAL MODIFICATION
Definition
Behavioral modification (also called behavior modification or applied behavior analysis) is a systematic
approach to changing behavior based on principles of learning theory, particularly operant conditioning. It
focuses on observable behaviors and uses reinforcement and consequences to increase desirable behaviors
and decrease undesirable ones.
Core Principles:
 Behavior is learned and can be changed
 Focus on observable, measurable behaviors
 Environmental factors influence behavior
 Systematic application of learning principles
 Data-driven decision making
Key Concepts in Behavioral Modification
1. Reinforcement: Process of increasing behavior frequency.
Positive Reinforcement:
 Adding something desirable after behavior
 Examples: praise, rewards, privileges, tokens
 Strengthens behavior
Negative Reinforcement:
 Removing something unpleasant after behavior
 Examples: removing homework after good behavior, stopping nagging when task completed
 Often misunderstood (NOT punishment)
 Strengthens behavior
2. Punishment: Process of decreasing behavior frequency.
Positive Punishment:
 Adding something unpleasant after behavior
 Examples: reprimands, extra work, restitution
 Weakens behavior
Negative Punishment:
 Removing something desirable after behavior
 Examples: response cost, time-out, loss of privileges
 Weakens behavior
3. Extinction:
 Withholding reinforcement for previously reinforced behavior
 Behavior decreases when no longer reinforced
 Example: ignoring attention-seeking behavior
4. Shaping:
 Reinforcing successive approximations toward target behavior
 Breaking complex behaviors into steps
 Gradually requiring closer approximation
5. Modeling:
 Learning by observing others
 Demonstrating desired behavior
 Vicarious learning
6. Prompting and Fading:
 Providing cues or assistance
 Gradually reducing supports
 Promoting independence
Steps in Behavioral Modification
1. Identify Target Behavior:
 Define behavior specifically and objectively
 Observable and measurable
 Example: “completes homework” not “is responsible”
2. Baseline Data Collection:
 Measure current frequency of behavior
 Establish starting point
 Duration, frequency, or intensity
3. Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA):
 Determine why behavior occurs
 Identify triggers (antecedents)
 Identify consequences maintaining behavior
 Understand function: attention, escape, sensory, tangible
4. Develop Intervention Plan:
 Select appropriate strategies
 Identify reinforcers
 Plan for teaching alternative behaviors
 Environmental modifications
 Ensure consistency
5. Implement Intervention:
 Apply strategies consistently
 Train all involved persons
 Monitor implementation fidelity
6. Monitor Progress:
 Collect ongoing data
 Graph results
 Analyze effectiveness
 Make adjustments as needed
7. Evaluate and Modify:
 Review data regularly
 Adjust strategies if not effective
 Plan for maintenance and generalization
Behavioral Modification Techniques
1. Token Economy:
 Earn tokens for appropriate behaviors
 Exchange tokens for rewards
 Provides immediate and delayed reinforcement
 Examples: point systems, sticker charts
2. Contingency Contracting:
 Written agreement between student and teacher/parent
 Specifies behaviors and consequences
 Clear expectations
 Mutual agreement
3. Time-Out:
 Brief removal from reinforcement
 Not punishment through isolation
 Should be used appropriately and briefly
 Must be part of comprehensive plan
4. Response Cost:
 Loss of reinforcer for inappropriate behavior
 Example: losing points or privileges
 Must have reinforcers to lose
5. Differential Reinforcement:
 DRO (Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior): Reinforce when problem behavior doesn’t occur
 DRI (Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior): Reinforce behavior that can’t occur
simultaneously with problem behavior
 DRA (Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior): Reinforce acceptable alternative to
problem behavior
6. Self-Management:
 Self-monitoring: student tracks own behavior
 Self-evaluation: student judges own performance
 Self-reinforcement: student rewards self
 Promotes independence and generalization
7. Group Contingencies:
 Rewards based on group performance
 Promotes peer support
 Types: independent, dependent, interdependent
Guidelines for Effective Behavioral Modification
Do’s:
 Be specific and clear about expectations
 Reinforce immediately
 Be consistent
 Use positive reinforcement frequently
 Reinforce improvement, not just perfection
 Fade reinforcement gradually
 Teach alternative appropriate behaviors
 Focus on increasing positive behaviors
 Collect data to guide decisions
 Involve the student when appropriate
Don’ts:
 Don’t use punishment as primary approach
 Don’t use threats
 Don’t be inconsistent
 Don’t give up too quickly
 Don’t use reinforcers that aren’t truly reinforcing
 Don’t forget to plan for generalization
 Don’t ignore the function of behavior
 Don’t use public humiliation
Considerations and Ethical Issues
Ethical Guidelines:
 Dignity and respect for individual
 Least restrictive/intrusive interventions first
 Right to effective treatment
 Informed consent
 Competent implementation
 Regular review and evaluation
Limitations:
 May not address underlying causes
 Requires consistency and follow-through
 Time-intensive
 May not generalize without planning
 Cultural considerations important
 Should be part of comprehensive approach
When Combined With:
 Academic interventions
 Social skills training
 Counseling
 Family support
 Environmental modifications Results are typically most effective
14. PHYSICAL AND HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS
i) Definition
Physical and health impairments refer to conditions that limit a person’s physical capacity, vitality, or alertness
and adversely affect educational performance. These include a wide range of medical conditions affecting the
body’s systems.
Key Characteristics:
 Medical or health condition present
 Impact on physical functioning
 May require medical monitoring or intervention
 Affects school attendance or performance
 May require adaptations or accommodations
 Varies widely in severity and impact
ii) Classification of Physical and Health Impairments
A. Orthopedic Impairments: Conditions affecting the skeletal system, muscles, or joints.
1. Cerebral Palsy:
 Brain damage affecting movement and posture
 Types: spastic, athetoid, ataxic, mixed
 Range from mild to severe
 May affect speech, vision, cognition
 Non-progressive
2. Spina Bifida:
 Neural tube defect
 Incomplete closure of spine
 May cause paralysis below lesion
 Often affects bladder and bowel control
 Hydrocephalus common
3. Muscular Dystrophy:
 Progressive muscle weakness
 Genetic condition
 Multiple types (Duchenne most common)
 Progressive deterioration
 Eventually affects mobility
4. Spinal Cord Injuries:
 Paraplegia (lower body paralysis)
 Quadriplegia/Tetraplegia (all four limbs affected)
 Results from trauma or disease
 Permanent damage
5. Limb Deficiencies:
 Congenital (born without limb or part)
 Acquired (amputation due to trauma or disease)
 May use prosthetics
6. Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis:
 Joint inflammation in children
 Pain and stiffness
 May affect growth
 Fluctuating symptoms
7. Multiple Sclerosis:
 Progressive neurological condition
 Affects myelin in nervous system
 Rare in children but can occur in teens
 Variable symptoms
B. Health Impairments: Chronic or acute health problems affecting stamina, vitality, or alertness.
1. Epilepsy/Seizure Disorders:
 Recurrent seizures
 Various types (absence, tonic-clonic, partial)
 Usually controlled with medication
 Safety considerations
 May affect learning during/after seizures
2. Asthma:
 Chronic respiratory condition
 Airway inflammation and constriction
 Triggered by allergens, exercise, stress
 Affects school attendance
 Managed with medication
3. Diabetes (Type 1):
 Pancreas doesn’t produce insulin
 Requires insulin management
 Blood sugar monitoring
 Risk of hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia
 Affects energy and attention
4. Cystic Fibrosis:
 Genetic disorder affecting lungs and digestive system
 Thick mucus production
 Frequent infections
 Requires ongoing treatment
 Progressive condition
5. Sickle Cell Disease:
 Genetic blood disorder
 Abnormal hemoglobin
 Painful crises
 Increased infections
 Fatigue
6. Cancer:
 Various types affecting children
 Treatment side effects
 Frequent absences
 Fatigue and immune compromise
 Emotional impact
7. Heart Conditions:
 Congenital heart defects
 Acquired heart disease
 May limit physical activity
 Fatigue
 Medical monitoring
8. HIV/AIDS:
 Immune system compromise
 Frequent illnesses
 Medication side effects
 Confidentiality issues
 May affect neurological function
9. Hemophilia:
 Blood clotting disorder
 Risk of bleeding
 Activity restrictions
 Joint damage from bleeding
10. Kidney Disease:
 Chronic kidney failure
 May require dialysis
 Fatigue
 Dietary restrictions
 Possible cognitive effects
C. Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI):
 Acquired injury to brain
 Results from external force
 Cognitive, physical, behavioral effects
 Recovery varies
 May be temporary or permanent
iii) Causes of Physical and Health Impairments
Genetic Causes:
 Inherited conditions
 Chromosomal abnormalities
 Genetic mutations
 Examples: muscular dystrophy, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease
Prenatal Causes:
 Infections during pregnancy
 Maternal substance abuse
 Exposure to toxins
 Nutritional deficiencies
 Rh incompatibility
 Examples: cerebral palsy, spina bifida
Perinatal Causes:
 Birth complications
 Oxygen deprivation
 Premature birth
 Birth trauma
 Example: cerebral palsy
Postnatal Causes:
 Infections (meningitis, encephalitis)
 Injuries and accidents
 Child abuse
 Environmental toxins
 Malnutrition
 Examples: TBI, spinal cord injury
Progressive Conditions:
 Degenerative diseases
 Examples: muscular dystrophy, some cancers
Autoimmune Causes:
 Body attacks own tissues
 Examples: juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, Type 1 diabetes
Unknown Causes:
 Many conditions have unclear etiology
iv) Education for Students with Physical and Health Impairments
Individual Health Care Plan:
 Medical information and needs
 Emergency procedures
 Medication administration
 Activity restrictions
 Equipment needs
 Staff training requirements
Physical Accessibility:
1. Building Modifications:
 Wheelchair ramps
 Accessible restrooms
 Elevators
 Wide doorways
 Accessible drinking fountains
 Modified desks and tables
2. Classroom Adaptations:
 Appropriate seating
 Space for equipment (wheelchair, walker, stander)
 Storage for supplies
 Access to materials
 Climate control if needed
Instructional Adaptations:
1. Academic Modifications:
 Extended time
 Reduced workload when fatigue is issue
 Alternative assignments
 Flexible scheduling
 Breaks as needed
 Homebound instruction during illness
2. Materials and Equipment:
 Adaptive writing tools (grips, pencils)
 Computer access (keyboard modifications, voice recognition)
 Book holders
 Page turners
 Adaptive scissors
 Large print or magnification if needed
 Communication devices if needed
3. Assistive Technology:
 Computer adaptations
 Augmentative communication devices
 Environmental controls
 Positioning devices
 Mobility aids
Physical and Occupational Therapy:
 Range of motion exercises
 Strength building
 Fine motor skills
 Positioning and seating
 Use of adaptive equipment
 Activities of daily living
Health Management:
1. Medication Administration:
 Trained staff
 Proper storage and documentation
 Emergency medications available
 Clear protocols
2. Medical Procedures:
 Tube feeding
 Catheterization
 Suctioning
 Glucose monitoring
 Seizure response
 Staff training essential
3. Monitoring:
 Regular health checks
 Communication with medical providers
 Watch for changes in condition
 Maintain health records
Physical Education Adaptations:
 Modified activities
 Adaptive equipment
 Alternative activities
 Focus on abilities
 Inclusion when possible
 Consult with medical providers
Social and Emotional Support:
 Address self-esteem issues
 Facilitate peer relationships
 Disability awareness education
 Support for grief and loss (progressive conditions)
 Counseling services
 Promoting independence and self-advocacy
Attendance and Absences:
 Flexible attendance policies
 Homebound instruction when needed
 Technology for remote participation
 Make-up work plans
 Maintaining connection during absences
Emergency Planning:
 Evacuation plans
 Emergency contact information
 Medical emergency procedures
 Staff training on specific needs
 Emergency medications and equipment
Collaboration:
 Parents/family
 Medical providers
 School nurse
 Physical and occupational therapists
 Special education teachers
 General education teachers
 School psychologist
 Social worker
Transition Planning:
 Post-secondary education
 Career preparation
 Independent living skills
 Community resources
 Adult healthcare transition
 Assistive technology needs
Important Considerations:
 Every condition and individual is unique
 Avoid assumptions about capabilities
 Focus on what student CAN do
 Respect privacy and dignity
 Promote maximum independence
 High expectations with appropriate support
 Consider impact of condition on family
 Be prepared for medical emergencies
 Confidentiality regarding health information
CONCLUSION
Special education is a dynamic field dedicated to ensuring that all children, regardless of their abilities or
disabilities, have access to appropriate education that allows them to reach their full potential. Key principles
include:
 Individualization: Recognizing that each child is unique and requires personalized approaches
 Early Intervention: The importance of identifying and addressing needs as early as possible
 Collaboration: Working together with families, professionals, and the community
 Inclusion: Promoting participation in the least restrictive environment
 Focus on Abilities: Building on strengths while addressing challenges
 Respect and Dignity: Treating all children with respect and maintaining high expectations
 Evidence-Based Practices: Using approaches supported by research
 Cultural Sensitivity: Considering cultural and linguistic diversity
The ultimate goal of special education is to provide each child with the knowledge, skills, and support needed
to become an independent, contributing member of society. This requires ongoing learning, flexibility,
compassion, and a commitment to the belief that all children can learn and succeed.
END OF COURSE NOTES
These comprehensive notes cover all topics outlined in the FED 242 course syllabus. Use them as a study guide
and reference material. Remember to supplement with additional readings, examples, and practical
applications as you continue your learning.